Instrumentation |

Presentation of music for performance by any part of an orchestra or instrumental ensemble. The presentation of music for orchestra is often also called orchestration. In the past pl. the authors gave the terms “I.” and “orchestration” dec. meaning. So, for example, F. Gewart defined I. as the doctrine of technical. and express. Opportunities instruments, and orchestration – as an art of their joint application, and F. Busoni attributed to orchestration a presentation for an orchestra of music, from the very beginning thought by the author as orchestral, and to I. – a presentation for an orchestra of works written without counting on k.- l. a certain composition or for other compositions. Over time, these terms have become almost identical. The term “I.”, which has a more universal meaning, to a greater extent expresses the very essence of creativity. the process of composing music for many (several) performers. Therefore, it is increasingly used in the field of polyphonic choral music, especially in cases of various arrangements.

I. is not an external “outfit” of a work, but one of the sides of its essence, for it is impossible to imagine any kind of music outside of its concrete sound, that is, outside of the defined. timbres and their combinations. The process of I. finds its final expression in the writing of a score that unites the parts of all the instruments and voices participating in the performance of a given work. (The non-musical effects and noises provided by the author for this composition are also recorded in the score.)

Initial ideas about I. could have already arisen when the difference between the muses was first realized. phrase, sung human. voice, and by her, played on c.-l. tool. However, for a long time, including the heyday of many-goal. contrapuntal letters, timbres, their contrast and dynamics. chances didn’t play in the music in any meaningful way. roles. Composers limited themselves to the approximate balance of melodic lines, while the choice of instruments was often not determined and could be random.

The process of development of I. as a formative factor can be traced, starting with the approval of the homophonic style of musical writing. Special means were required to isolate the leading melodies from the accompaniment environment; their use led to greater expressiveness, tension and specificity of sound.

An important role in the understanding of dramaturgy. the role of the instruments of the orchestra was played by the opera house, which originated in the late 16th – early 17th century. XNUMXth century In C. Monteverdi’s operas, for the first time, the disturbing tremolo and alert pizzicato of bow strings are found. K. V. Gluck, and later W. A. ​​Mozart, successfully used trombones to depict formidable, frightening situations (“Orpheus and Eurydice”, “Don Juan”). Mozart successfully used the naive sound of the then primitive small flute to characterize Papageno (“The Magic Flute”). In opera compositions, composers resorted to sacraments. the sound of closed brass instruments, and also used the sonority of percussion instruments that came to Europe. orchestras from the so-called. “janissary music”. However, searches in the field of I. remained in the mean. least disorderly until (due to the selection and improvement of musical instruments, as well as under the influence of the urgent need for printed propaganda of musical works), the process of becoming a symphony was completed. an orchestra consisting of four, albeit unequal, groups of instruments: string, wood, brass and percussion. The typification of the composition of the orchestra was prepared by the entire course of the previous development of the muses. culture.

The earliest was in the 17th century. – the string group stabilized, made up of varieties of string instruments of the violin family that had formed shortly before: violins, violas, cellos and double basses doubling them, which replaced the violas – chamber sounding instruments and limited technical capabilities.

The ancient flute, oboe and bassoon had also been improved so much by this time that, in terms of tuning and mobility, they began to meet the requirements of ensemble playing and were soon able to form (despite a relatively limited overall range) the 2nd group in the orchestra. When in Ser. 18th century the clarinet also joined them (the design of which was improved somewhat later than the designs of other wooden wind instruments), then this group became almost as monolithic as the string one, yielding to it in uniformity, but surpassing it in a variety of timbres.

It took much longer to form into an equal orc. copper spirit group. tools. In the time of J.S. Bach, small chamber-type orchestras often included a natural trumpet, used by the predominately. in the upper register, where its scale allowed to extract diatonic. second sequences. To replace this melodic the use of a pipe (the so-called “Clarino” style) from the 2nd floor. 18th century came a new interpretation of copper. Composers increasingly began to resort to natural pipes and horns for harmonica. filling orc. fabrics, as well as to enhance accents and emphasize decomp. rhythm formulas. Due to limited opportunities, brass instruments acted as an equal group only in those cases when music was composed for them, DOS. on nature. scales characteristic of military fanfares, hunting horns, postal horns, and other signal instruments for special purposes – the founders of the orchestral brass group.

Finally, hit. instruments in orchestras of the 17th – 18th centuries. most often they were represented by two timpani tuned to tonic and dominant, which were usually used in combination with a brass group.

At the end of 18 – early. 19th centuries formed a “classic.” orchestra. The most important role in establishing its composition belongs to J. Haydn, however, it took on a completely completed form in L. Beethoven (in connection with which it is sometimes called “Beethovenian”). It included 8-10 first violins, 4-6 second violins, 2-4 violas, 3-4 cellos and 2-3 double basses (before Beethoven they played predominantly in an octave with cellos). This composition of strings corresponded to 1-2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns (sometimes 3 or even 4, when there was a need for horns of different tunings), 2 trumpets and 2 timpani. Such an orchestra provided sufficient opportunities for the realization of the ideas of composers who had achieved great virtuosity in the use of muses. tools, especially copper, the design of which was still very primitive. Thus, in the work of J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, and especially L. Beethoven, there are often examples of ingenious overcoming of the limitations of their contemporary instrumentation and the desire to expand and improve the symphony orchestra of that time is constantly guessed.

In the 3rd symphony, Beethoven created a theme that embodies the heroic principle with great completeness and at the same time ideally corresponds to the nature of natural horns:

In the slow movement of his 5th symphony, the horns and trumpets are entrusted with triumphant exclamations:

The jubilant theme of the finale of this symphony also required the participation of trombones:

When working on the theme of the final anthem of the 9th symphony, Beethoven undoubtedly sought to ensure that it could be played on natural brass instruments:

The use of the timpani in the scherzo of the same symphony undoubtedly testifies to the intention to dramatically oppose the beat. instrument – timpani for the rest of the orchestra:

Even during the life of Beethoven, there was a genuine revolution in the design of brass spirits. tools associated with the invention of the valve mechanism.

Composers were no longer constrained by the limited possibilities of natures. brass instruments and, in addition, got the opportunity to safely dispose of a wider range of tonalities. However, the new, “chromatic” pipes and horns did not immediately win universal recognition – at first they sounded worse than natural ones and often did not provide the necessary purity of the system. And at a later time, some composers (R. Wagner, I. Brahms, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov) sometimes returned to the interpretation of horns and trumpets as natures. instruments, prescribing them to play without the use of valves. In general, the appearance of valve instruments opened up broad prospects for the further development of muses. creativity, since in the shortest possible time the copper group completely caught up with the string and wood, having received the opportunity to independently present any of the most complex music.

An important event was the invention of the bass tuba, which became a reliable foundation not only for the brass group, but for the entire orchestra as a whole.

The acquisition of independence by the copper group finally determined the place of the horns, which before that adjoined (depending on the circumstances) either copper or wooden ones. As brass instruments, horns usually performed together with trumpets (sometimes supported by timpani), that is, precisely as a group.

In other cases, they perfectly merged with wooden instruments, especially bassoons, forming a harmonica pedal (it is no coincidence that in ancient scores, and later with R. Wagner, G. Spontini, sometimes with G. Berlioz, a line of horns was placed above the bassoons, i.e. . among wooden). Traces of this duality are visible even today, since the horns are the only instruments that occupy a place in the score not in the order of the tessitura, but, as it were, as a “link” between wooden and brass instruments.

Some modern composers (for example, S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich) in many others. scores recorded the horn part between trumpets and trombones. However, the method of recording horns according to their tessitura did not become widespread due to the expediency of placing trombones and pipes next to each other in the score, often acting together as representatives of “heavy” (“hard”) copper.

Group of wooden spirits. instruments, the designs of which continued to improve, began to be intensively enriched due to varieties: small and alto flutes, eng. horn, small and bass clarinets, contrabassoon. In the 2nd floor. 19th century Gradually, a colorful wooden group took shape, in terms of its volume not only not inferior to the string, but even surpassing it.

The number of percussion instruments is also increasing. 3-4 timpani are joined by small and large drums, cymbals, a triangle, a tambourine. Increasingly, bells, xylophone, fp., later celesta appear in the orchestra. New colors were introduced by the seven-pedal harp, invented at the beginning of the 19th century and later improved by S. Erar, with a double-tuning mechanism.

Strings, in turn, do not remain indifferent to the growth of neighboring groups. In order to maintain the correct acoustic proportions, it was necessary to increase the number of performers on these instruments to 14-16 first violins, 12-14 second ones, 10-12 violas, 8-12 cellos, 6-8 double basses, which created the possibility of a wide use of decomp. divisi.

Based on the classic 19th century orchestra gradually develops generated by the ideas of muses. romanticism (and hence the search for new colors and bright contrasts, properties, program-symphonic and theatrical music) the orchestra of G. Berlioz and R. Wagner, K. M. Weber and G. Verdi, P. I. Tchaikovsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

Completely formed in the 2nd floor. 19th century, existing without any changes for almost a hundred years, it (with small variations) still satisfies the arts. the needs of composers of various directions and individualities as gravitating towards picturesqueness, colorfulness, muses. sound writing, and those striving for the psychological depth of musical images.

In parallel with the stabilization of the orchestra, an intensive search for new orc techniques was carried out. writing, a new interpretation of the instruments of the orchestra. Classic acoustic theory. balance, formulated in relation to the large symphony. orchestra by N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, proceeded from the fact that one trumpet (or trombone, or tuba) playing forte in its most expressive. register, in terms of sound strength it is equal to two horns, each of which, in turn, is equal to two wooden spirits. instruments or the unison of any subgroup of strings.

P. I. Tchaikovsky. Symphony 6, movement I. The flutes and clarinets repeat the sentence previously played by the divisi violas and cellos.

At the same time, certain corrections were made for the difference in the intensity of the registers and for the dynamic. shades that can change the ratio within orc. fabrics. An important technique of classical I. was the harmonic or melodic (counterpunctuated) pedal, which is so characteristic of homophonic music.

Main in compliance with the acoustic equilibrium, I. could not be universal. She well met the requirements of strict proportions, poise of thinking, but was less suitable for conveying strong expressions. In these cases, the methods of I., osn. on powerful doublings (triples, quadruples) of some voices compared to others, on constant changes in timbres and dynamics.

Such techniques are characteristic of the work of a number of composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (for example, A. N. Scriabin).

Along with the use of “pure” (solo) timbres, composers began to achieve special effects, boldly mixing dissimilar colors, doubling voices through 2, 3 or more octaves, using complex mixtures.

P. I. Tchaikovsky. Symphony No. 6, movement I. The exclamations of brass instruments are answered each time by unisons of stringed and wooden instruments.

The pure timbres themselves, as it turned out, were fraught with additions. dramaturgy. opportunities, eg. comparison of high and low registers in wooden instruments, the use of mute decomp. assignments for brass, the use of high bass positions for strings, etc. Instruments that were previously used only for beating the rhythm or filling and coloring harmony are increasingly being used as carriers of thematicism.

In search of expansion will express. and depict. Opportunities formed the orchestra of the 20th century. – Orchestra of G. Mahler and R. Strauss, C. Debussy and M. Ravel, I. F. Stravinsky and V. Britten, S. S. Prokofiev and D. D. Shostakovich. With all the variety of creative directions and personalities of these and a number of other outstanding masters of orchestral writing dec. countries of the world they are related by the virtuosity of the diverse techniques of I., osn. on a developed auditory imagination, a true sense of the nature of instruments and an excellent knowledge of their technical. opportunities.

Means. place in 20th century music assigned to the leittimbres, when each instrument becomes, as it were, the character of the instrument being played. performance. Thus, the system of leitmotifs invented by Wagner takes on new forms. Hence the intensive search for new timbres. String players increasingly play sul ponticello, col legno, with harmonics; wind instruments use the frullato technique; playing the harp is enriched by complex combinations of harmonics, strikes on the strings with the palm of your hand. New instrument designs appear that allow unusual effects to be achieved (eg, glissando on pedal timpani). Completely new instruments are invented (especially percussion), incl. and electronic. Finally, in Symph. The orchestra is increasingly introducing instruments from other compositions (saxophones, plucked national instruments).

New requirements for the use of familiar tools are presented by representatives of avant-garde movements in modern times. music. Their scores are dominated by the beat. instruments with a certain pitch (xylophone, bells, vibraphone, drums of different pitches, timpani, tubular bells), as well as celesta, fp. and various power tools. Even bowed instruments mean. the least used by these composers for plucked and percussion. sound production, up to tapping with bows on the decks of instruments. Effects such as snapping nails on the soundboard of a harp resonator or tapping of valves on wooden ones are also becoming common. Increasingly, the most extreme, most intense registers of instruments are used. In addition, the creativity of avant-garde artists is characterized by the desire to interpret the orchestra premier. as meetings of soloists; the composition of the orchestra itself tends to be reduced, primarily due to a decrease in the number of group instruments.

N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. “Scheherazade”. part II. Strings, playing non divisi, using double notes and three- and four-part chords, expound melodic-harmonic with great fullness. texture, being only slightly supported by wind instruments.

Although in the 20th century many works have been written. for special (variant) compositions of symph. orchestra, none of them became typical, as before the string bow orchestra, for which many works were created that gained wide popularity (for example, “Serenade for String Orchestra” by P. I. Tchaikovsky).

Orc development. music clearly demonstrates the interdependence of creativity and its material base. notice. advances in the design of the complex mechanics of wooden spirits. tools or in the field of manufacturing the most accurately calibrated copper tools, as well as many others. other improvements in musical instruments were ultimately the result of the urgent demands of ideological art. order. In turn, the improvement of the material base of art opened up new horizons for composers and performers, awakened their creativity. fantasy and thus created the prerequisites for the further development of musical art.

If a composer works on an orchestral work, it is (or should be) written directly for the orchestra, if not in all the details, then in its main features. In this case, it is initially recorded on several lines in the form of a sketch – a prototype of the future score. The less details of the orchestral texture the sketch contains, the closer it is to the usual two-line FP. presentation, the more work on the actual I. to be done in the process of writing the score.

M. Ravel. “Bolero”. Enormous growth is achieved by means of instrumentation alone. From a solo flute against the background of a barely audible accompanying figure, through the unison of woodwinds, then through a mixture of strings doubled by winds…

In essence, the instrumentation of fp. plays – one’s own or another author’s – requires creativity. approach. The piece in this case is always only a prototype of the future orchestral work, since the instrumentalist constantly has to change the texture, and often he is also forced to change registers, double the voices, add pedals, recompose figurations, fill in the acoustic. voids, convert tight chords to wide, etc. Network. transfer fp. presentation to the orchestra (sometimes encountered in musical practice) usually leads to artistically unsatisfactory. results – such an I. turns out to be poor in sound and makes an unfavorable impression.

The most important art. the task of the instrumentator is to apply decomp. according to the characteristic and tension of the timbres, which will most forcefully reveal the dramaturgy of the ork. music; main technical At the same time, the task is to achieve good listening to voices and the correct ratio between the first and second (third) planes, which ensures the relief and depth of the orc. sound.

With I., for example, fp. plays may arise and a number will complement. tasks, starting with the choice of key, which does not always match the key of the original, especially if there is a need to use the bright sound of open strings or the brilliant valveless sounds of brass instruments. It is also very important to correctly resolve the issue of all cases of the transfer of muses. phrases into other registers compared to the original, and, finally, based on the general development plan, mark out in how many “layers” one or another section of the instrumented production will have to be stated.

Perhaps several. I. solutions of almost any product. (of course, if it was not conceived specifically as an orchestral and not written down in the form of a score sketch). Each of these decisions can be artistically justified in its own way. However, these will already be to some extent different orcs. products that differ from each other in their colors, tension, and degree of contrast between sections. This confirms that I. is a creative process, inseparable from the essence of the work.

Modern I.’s claim requires precise phrasing instructions. Meaningful phrasing is not only about following the prescribed tempo and following the general designations of the dynamic. and agogic. order, but also the use of certain methods of performance characteristic of each instrument. So, when performing on the strings. instruments, you can move the bow up and down, at the tip or at the stock, smoothly or abruptly, pressing the string tightly or letting the bow bounce, playing one note for each bow or several notes, etc.

Spirit performers. tools can use diff. methods of blowing a jet of air – from striving. double and triple “language” to a wide melodious legato, using them in the interests of expressive phrasing. The same applies to other modern instruments. orchestra. The instrumentalist must know all these subtleties thoroughly in order to be able to bring his intentions to the attention of the performers with the greatest completeness. Therefore, modern scores (in contrast to the scores of that time, when the stock of generally accepted performing techniques was very limited and much seemed to be taken for granted) are usually literally dotted with a multitude of the most precise indications, without which the music becomes featureless and loses its living, quivering breath.

Well-known examples of the use of timbres in dramaturgy. and depict. purposes are: flute playing in the prelude “Afternoon of a Faun” by Debussy; the playing of the oboe and then the bassoon at the end of the 2nd scene of the opera Eugene Onegin (The Shepherd Plays); the horn phrase falling through the entire range and the cries of the small clarinet in R. Strauss’s poem “Til Ulenspiegel”; the gloomy sound of the bass clarinet in the 5th scene of the opera The Queen of Spades (In the Countess’s Bedroom); double bass solo before the scene of Desdemona’s death (Otello by G. Verdi); frullato spirit. instruments depicting the bleating of rams in symphony. the poem “Don Quixote” by R. Strauss; sul ponticello strings. instruments depicting the beginning of the battle on Lake Peipsi (Alexander Nevsky cantata by Prokofiev).

Also noteworthy are the viola solo in Berlioz’s symphony “Harold in Italy” and the solo cello in Strauss’s “Don Quixote”, the violin cadenza in the symphony. Rimsky-Korsakov’s suite “Scheherazade”. These are personified. The leittimbres, for all their differences, perform important programmatic dramaturgy. functions.

The principles of I., developed when creating plays for symphonies. orchestra, mainly valid for many other orc. compositions, which are ultimately created in the image and likeness of the symphony. and always include two or three groups of homogeneous instruments. It is no coincidence that the spirit. orchestras, as well as dec. nar. nat. orchestras often perform transcriptions of works written for symphonies. orchestra. Such arrangements are one of the types of arrangement. Principles I. to. – l. works without beings. changes are transferred to them from one composition of the orchestra to another. Widespread dec. orchestra libraries, which allow small ensembles to perform works written for large orchestras.

A special place is occupied by author’s I., first of all, fi. essays. Some products exist in two equal versions – in the form of orc. scores and in fp. presentation (some rhapsodies by F. Liszt, suites from the music to “Peer Gynt” by E. Grieg, separate plays by A. K. Lyadov, I. Brahms, C. Debussy, suites from “Petrushka” by I.F. Stravinsky, ballet suites “Romeo and Juliet” by S. S. Prokofiev, etc.). Among the scores created on the basis of well-known FP. works by great masters I., Mussorgsky-Ravel’s Pictures at an Exhibition stand out, performed as often as their fp. prototype. Among the most significant works in the field of I. are the editions of the operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina by Mussorgsky and The Stone Guest by Dargomyzhsky, performed by N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, and the new I. of the operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina by Mussorgsky, carried out by D. D. Shostakovich.

There is an extensive literature on I. for symphony orchestra, summarizing the rich experience of symphonic music. To the foundation. Works include Berlioz’s “Great Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration” and Rimsky-Korsakov’s “Fundamentals of Orchestration with Score Samples from His Own Compositions”. The authors of these works were outstanding practical composers, who managed to exhaustively respond to the urgent needs of musicians and create books that have not lost their paramount importance. Numerous editions testify to this. Treatise by Berlioz, written back in the 40s. 19th century, was revised and supplemented by R. Strauss in accordance with the Orc. practice beginning. 20th century

In the music uch. institutions undergo special course I., usually consisting of two main. sections: instrumentation and actually I. The first of them (introductory) introduces the instruments, their structure, properties, history of the development of each of them. The I. course is devoted to the rules for combining instruments, transferring by means of I. the rise and fall of tension, writing private (group) and orchestral tutti. When examining the methods of art, one ultimately proceeds from the idea of ​​art. the whole created (orchestrated) product.

Techniques I. are acquired in the process of practical. classes, during which students, under the guidance of a teacher, transcribe for the orchestra the premier. fp. works, get acquainted with the history of the orchestra. styles and analyze the best examples of scores; conductors, composers and musicologists, in addition, practice reading scores, generally reproducing them on the piano. But the best practice for a novice instrumentalist is to listen to their work in an orchestra and receive advice from experienced musicians during rehearsals.

References: Rimsky-Korsakov N., Fundamentals of Orchestration with Score Samples from His Own Compositions, ed. M. Steinberg, (part) 1-2, Berlin – M. – St. Petersburg, 1913, the same, Full. coll. soch., Literary works and correspondence, vol. III, M., 1959; Beprik A., Interpretation of orchestra instruments, M., 1948, 4961; his own. Essays on questions of orchestral styles, M., 1961; Chulaki M., Symphony Orchestra Instruments, L., 1950, revised. M., 1962, 1972; Vasilenko S., Instrumentation for symphony orchestra, vol. 1, M., 1952, vol. 2, M., 1959 (edited and with additions by Yu. A. Fortunatov); Rogal-Levitsky D.R., Modern orchestra, vol. 1-4, M., 1953-56; Berlioz H., Grand trait d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes, P., 1844, M855; his, Instrumentationslehre, TI 1-2, Lpz., 1905, 1955; Gevaert FA, Traite general d’instrumentation, Gand-Liège, 1863, rus. per. P. I. Tchaikovsky, M., 1866, M. – Leipzig, 1901, also in Full. coll. op. Tchaikovsky, vol. IIIB, revised. and additional edition under the title: Nouveau traite d’instrumentation, P.-Brux., 1885; Russian trans., M., 1892, M.-Leipzig, 1913; 2nd part titled: Cours méthodique d’orchestration, P. – Brux., 1890, Rus. trans., M., 1898, 1904; Rrout, E., Instrumentation, L., 1878; Gulraud E., Traite pratique d’instrumentation, P., 1892, rus. per. G. Konyus under the title: Guide to the practical study of instrumentation, M., 1892 (before the publication of the original French edition), ed. and with additions by D. Rogal-Levitsky, M., 1934; Widor Ch.-M., La technique de l’orchestre moderne, P., 1904, 1906, Rus. per. with add. D. Rogal-Levitsky, Moscow, 1938; Carse A., Practical hints on orchestration, L., 1919; his own, The history of orchestration, L., 1925, rus. trans., M., 1932; his, The orchestra in the 18th century, Camb., 1940; his, The orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz, Camb., 1948; Wellen, E., Die neue Instrumentation, Bd 1-2, B., 1928-29; Nedwed W., Die Entwicklung der Instrumentation von der Wiener Klassik bis zu den Anfängen R. Wagners, W., 1931 (Diss.); Merill, B. W., Practical introduction to orchestration and instrumentation, Ann Arbor (Michigan), 1937; Marescotti A.-F., Les instruments d’orchestre, leurs caractères, leurs possibilités et leur utilisation dans l’orchestre moderne, P., 1950; Kennan, K. W., The technique of orchestration, NY, 1952: Piston W., The instrumentation, NY, 1952; Coechlin Ch., Traité de l’orchestration, v. 1-3, P., 1954-56; Kunitz H., Die Instrumentation. Ein Hand- und Lehrbuch, Tl. 1-13, Lpz., 1956-61; Erph H., Lehrbuch der Instrumentation und Instrumentenkunde, Mainz, 1959; McKay GF, Creative orchestration, Boston, 1963; Becker H., Geschichte der Instrumentation, Köln, 1964 (Serie “Das Musikwerk”, H. 24); Goleminov M., Problems on orchestration, S., 1966; Zlatanova R., Development of the orchestra and orchestration, S, 1966; Pawlowsky W., Instrumentacja, Warsz., 1969.

M.I. Chulaki