Folk music |

Folk music, musical folklore (English Folk music, German Volksmusik, Volkskunst, French Folklore musical) – vocal (mainly song, i.e. musical and poetic), instrumental, vocal and instrumental and musical and dance creativity of the people (from primitive hunters, fishermen, nomadic pastoralists, shepherds and farmers to rural and urban working population, artisans, workers , military and student democratic environment, industrial proletariat).

The creators of N. m. were not only direct. producers of wealth. With the division of labor, peculiar professions of performers (often creators) of production arose. nar. creativity – buffoons (spielmans) and rhapsody. N. m. is inextricably linked with the life of the people. She is an integral part of the arts. creativity (folklore), which exists, as a rule, in an oral (non-written) form and is transmitted only by performers. traditions. Non-written (originally pre-literate) traditionalism is a defining feature of N. m. and folklore in general. Folklore is an art in the memory of generations. Muses. folklore is known to all social-historical. formations starting with pre-class societies (the so-called primitive art) and including modern. world. In this regard, the term “N. m.” – very broad and generalized, interpreting N. m. not as one of the components of the Nar. creativity, but as a branch (or root) of a single muses. culture. At the conference of the International council of people music (beginning of the 1950s) N. m. was defined as a product of muses. tradition, formed in the process of oral transmission by three factors – continuity (continuity), variance (variability) and selectivity (selection of the environment). However, this definition does not concern the problem of folklore creativity and suffers from social abstractness. H. m. should be considered as part of the universal muses. culture (this contributes to the identification of common features of the music of oral and written traditions, but leaves in the shadow the originality of each of them), and, above all, in the composition of the nar. culture – folklore. N. m. – organic. part of folklore (therefore, the well-known identification of the terms “N. m.” and “musical folklore” is historically and methodologically justified). However, it is included in the historical the process of formation and development of music. culture (cult and secular, prof. and mass).

The origins of N. m. go to the prehistoric. past. Arts. traditions of early societies. formations are exceptionally stable, tenacious (they determine the specifics of folklore for many centuries). In every historical era coexist production. more or less ancient, transformed, as well as newly created (according to the unwritten laws of tradition). Together they form the so-called. traditional folklore, i.e., primarily musical and poetic. art-in, created and transmitted by each ethnic. environment from generation to generation orally. The people keep in their memory and musical playing skills what meets their vital needs and moods. Traditional N. m. independence and generally opposed to prof. (“artificial” – artificialis) music belonging to younger, written traditions. Some of the forms of prof. mass music (in particular, song hits) partially merges with the latest manifestations of N. m. (everyday music, mountain folklore).

The question of the relationship between N. m. and the music of religions is complex and little studied. cult. The Church, despite the constant struggle with N. m., experienced its strong influence. In the Middle Ages. In Europe, the same melody could be performed secular and religious. texts. Along with cult music, the church distributed the so-called. religious songs (sometimes deliberately imitating folk songs), in a number of cultures included in the Nar. music tradition (for example, Christmas carols in Poland, English Christmas-carols, German Weihnachtslieder, French Noll, etc.). Partially reworked and rethought, they took on a new life. But even in countries with a strong influence of religion, folklore products. on religion. themes stand out noticeably in Nar. repertoire (although mixed forms may also occur). Folklore works are known, the plots of which go back to religions. ideas (see spiritual verse).

The music of the oral tradition developed more slowly than the written one, but at an increasing pace, especially in modern and contemporary times (in European folklore, this is noticeable when comparing rural and urban traditions). From dec. forms and types of primitive syncretism (ritual performances, games, song dances in conjunction with musical instruments, etc.) formed and developed independently. music genres. art-va – song, instr., dance – with their subsequent integration into synthetic. types of creativity. This happened long before the emergence of written music. traditions, and partly parallel to them and in a number of cultures independently of them. Even more complicated is the question of the formation of prof. music culture. Professionalism is characteristic not only of written, but also of oral music. traditions, which, in turn, are heterogeneous. There are oral (based) prof. culture outside of folklore, in the definition. least opposed to the folklore tradition (for example, Ind. ragi, Iranian dastgahi, Arab. makams). Prof. music art (with a social group of musicians and performing schools) also arose within the people. creativity as its organic part, including among the peoples who did not have an independent, separated from the folklore of prof. claims in Europe. understanding of this word (for example, among Kazakhs, Kirghiz, Turkmens). Modern music the culture of these peoples includes three internally complex areas – the muses proper. folklore (nar. songs of different genres), folk. prof. art of the oral (folklore) tradition (instr. kui and songs) and the latest composer’s work of the written tradition. The same in modern Africa: actually folk (folk creativity), traditional (professional in African understanding) and prof. (in the European sense) music. In such cultures, N. m. itself is internally heterogeneous (for example, vocal music is predominantly everyday, and instrumental folk tradition is predominantly professional). Thus, the concept of “N. m.” wider than musical folklore proper, since it also includes oral prof. music.

Since the development of written music. traditions there is a constant interaction of oral and written, everyday and prof. folklore and non-folklore traditions within the department. ethnic cultures, as well as in the process of complex inter-ethnic. contacts, including the mutual influence of cultures from different continents (eg, Europe with Asia and North Africa). Moreover, each tradition perceives the new (forms, repertoire) according to its specificity. norms, new material is mastered organically and does not seem alien. The tradition of N. m. is the “mother” for written musical culture.

Ch. difficulty in studying N. м. connected primarily with the duration of the period of pre-literate development of muses. culture, during which the most fundamental features of N. м. The study of this period is possible in the next. directions: a) theoretically and indirectly, based on analogies in related fields; b) but the surviving written and material sources (treatises on music, testimonies of travelers, chronicles, music. tools and manuscripts, archaeological. excavations); c) directly. oral music data. tradition capable of storing forms and form-creators. millennial principles. Music. traditions — organic. an integral part of the folklore traditions of each nation. Dialectic. interpretation of the historical traditions is one of the most important in Marxist theory. TO. Marx pointed to the predestination, as well as the limitations of traditions, which not only presupposes, but also ensures their existence: “In all these (communal) forms, the basis of development is the reproduction of predetermined data (to one degree or another, naturally formed or historically emerged, but which have become traditional ) the relationship of an individual to his community and a certain, predetermined objective existence for him, both in his relation to working conditions, and in his relation to his fellow workers, fellow tribesmen, etc. due to which this foundation is limited from the very beginning, but with the removal of this limitation, it causes decline and destruction” (Marx K. and Engels, F., Soch., vol. 46, h. 1, p. 475). However, the stability of traditions is internally dynamic: “A given generation, on the one hand, continues the inherited activity under completely changed conditions, and on the other hand, it modifies the old conditions through a completely changed activity” (Marx K. and Engels, F., Soch., vol. 3, p. 45). Folklore traditions occupy a special place in culture. There is no people without folklore, as well as without language. Folklore new formations appear not as simple and direct. a reflection of everyday life and not only in hybrid forms or as a result of rethinking the old, but are created from contradictions, clashes of two eras or ways of life and their ideology. The dialectic of development N. m., like all culture, is the struggle between tradition and renewal. The conflict between tradition and reality is the basis of the historical folklore dynamics. Typology of genres, images, functions, rituals, arts. forms, express means, connections and relationships in folklore is in constant correlation with their originality, their specificity in each specific manifestation. Any individualization occurs not only against the background of typology, but also within the framework of typical relationships, structures, stereotypes. The folklore tradition forms its own typology and is realized only in it. However, no set of features (even very important ones, e.g. collectivity, oral character, anonymity, improvisation, variance, etc.) cannot reveal the essence of N. м. It is more promising to interpret N. м. (and folklore in general) as dialectical. a system of correlative pairs of features that reveal the essence of the folklore tradition from the inside (without opposing folklore to non-folklore): for example, not just variance, but variance paired with stability, outside of which it does not exist. In each specific case (for example, in N. м. different ethnicities. cultures and in different genres of the same Nar. ice culture) one or another element of the pair may predominate, but one without the other is impossible. Folklore tradition can be defined through a system of 7 fundamentals. correlative pairs: collectivity – individuality; stability – mobility; multi-element – mono-element; performance-creativity – performance-reproduction; functionality — afunctionality; the system of genres is the specificity of the department. genres; dialect (dialect articulation) – supra-dialect. This system is dynamic. The ratio of pairs is not the same in different historical. epochs and on different continents. because different origin otd. ethnic ice cultures, genres м. (from different types of syncretic

The first pair includes such correlations as anonymity – authorship, unconscious spontaneous-traditional creativity – assimilation – folk-prof. “schools”, typological – specific; the second – stability – variance, stereotype – improvisation, and in relation to music – notated – not notated; third – perform. syncretism (singing, playing instruments, dancing) – will perform. asyncretism. For the oral character of N. m., there is no corresponding correlative pair within folklore (the relation between oral art and written art goes beyond folklore, which is unwritten by its nature, and characterizes the relation between folklore and non-folklore).

The correlative pair stability – mobility is of paramount importance, since it concerns the main thing in the folklore tradition – its internal. dynamism. Tradition is not peace, but a movement of a special type, i.e., balance achieved by the struggle of opposites, of which the most important are stability and variability (variance), stereotype (preservation of certain formulas) and the improvisation existing on its basis. Variation (an integral property of folklore) is the other side of stability. Without variance stability turns into a mechanical one. repetition, alien to folklore. Variation is a consequence of the oral nature and collectivity of N. m. and a condition for its existence. Each product expresses means in folklore is not unambiguous, it has a whole system of stylistically and semantically related variants that characterize the performer. dynamism N. m.

When studying N. m., difficulties also arise in connection with the application of musicologists to it. categories (form, mode, rhythm, genre, etc.), which are often inadequate to the self-consciousness of the individual. music cultures do not coincide with their traditional concepts, empiric. classifications, with Nar. terminology. In addition, N. m. almost never exists in its pure form, without connection with certain actions (labor, ritual, choreographic), with the social situation, etc. Nar. Creativity is a product not only of the artistic, but also of the social activity of the people. Hence, the study of N. m. cannot be limited only to the knowledge of her muses. system, it is also necessary to comprehend the specifics of its functioning in society, as part of the defined. folklore complexes. To clarify the concept of “N. m.” its regional and then genre differentiation is necessary. The oral element of N. m. at all levels is organized typologically (from the type of musical activity and genre system to the method of intonation, building an instrument, and choosing a musical formula) and is realized variantly. In typology (i.e., in comparing different musical cultures in order to establish types), phenomena are distinguished that are common to almost all muses. cultures (so-called musical universals), common to a particular region, group of cultures (so-called areal features) and local (so-called dialect features).

In modern Folkloristics does not have a single point of view on the regional classification of N. m. So, Amer. scientist A. Lomax (“Folk song style and culture” – “Folk song style and culture”, 1968) identifies 6 musical-style regions of the world: America, the Pacific Islands, Australia, Asia (highly developed cultures of antiquity), Africa, Europe , detailing them then according to the prevailing style models: for example, 3 europ. traditions – central, western, eastern and related Mediterranean. At the same time, some Slovak folklorists (see Slovak Musical Encyclopedia, 1969) single out not 3, but 4 Europ. traditions – Western (with the centers of the English, French and German language areas), Scandinavian, Mediterranean and Eastern (with the centers of the Carpathian and East Slavic; the Balkans are also connected here, without sufficient grounds). Usually, Europe as a whole is opposed to Asia, but some experts dispute this: for example, L. Picken (“Oxford History of Music” – “New Oxford History of Music”, 1959) opposes Europe and India to the Far East. the territory from China to the islands of the Malay Archipelago as a musical whole. It is also unjustified to single out Africa as a whole and even to oppose the North. Africa (north of the Sahara) is tropical, and in it – Western and Eastern. Such an approach coarsens the real diversity and complexity of the muses. landscape of Africa. continent, to-ry has at least 2000 tribes and peoples. The most convincing classification is from broad inter-ethnic. regions to intraethnic. dialects: for example, East-European, then East-Slav. and Russian regions with the subdivision of the latter into the regions of the north, west, center, south-Russian, Volga-Ural, Siberian and Far Eastern regions, which in turn are divided into smaller regions. Thus, N., m. exists on the definition. territory and in a specific historical time, that is, limited by space and time, which creates a system of musical and folklore dialects in each Nar. music culture. Nevertheless, each music culture forms a kind of musical-style whole, united at the same time. in larger folklore and ethnographic. regions, to-rye can be distinguished according to different criteria. The ratio of intra-dialect and supra-dialect, intra-system and inter-system features affects the essence of N. m. traditions. Each nation first of all recognizes and appreciates the difference (what distinguishes its N. m. from others), however, the majority of peoples. music cultures are fundamentally similar and live according to universal laws (the more elementary the musical means, the more universal they are).

These universal patterns and phenomena do not necessarily arise as a result of propagation from any one source. As a rule, they are formed among different peoples polygenetically and are universal in typological terms. sense, i.e. potentially. When classifying certain features or laws of N. m. to the universal, scientific. correctness. Dep. music elements. the forms considered in musical statics and in the intoned dynamics of a live performance are not identical. In the first case, they may turn out to be common to many peoples, in the second they may be profoundly different. In the music of different peoples, the identification of external (visual-notational) coincidences is unacceptable, since their nature, technique and nature of real sounding can be deeply dissimilar (for example, triadic combinations in choral singing of African pygmies and Bushmen and European harmonic polyphony . warehouse). At the musical-acoustic level (building material of N. m.) – almost everything is universal. Express. the means themselves are static and therefore pseudo-universal. Ethnicity manifests itself primarily in dynamics, i.e., in the form-creating laws of a specific style of N. m.

The concept of the border of a musical-folklore dialect is fluid among different peoples: territorially small dialects are the product of settled agriculture. culture, while nomads communicate over a vast area, which leads to a greater monolithic language (verbal and musical). Hence the even greater difficulty in comparing the N. m. of different societies. formations.

Finally, historicism will compare. music lighting. folklore of all peoples as a whole involves taking into account the diversity of historical. ethnic life. traditions. For example, the ancient great muses. traditions of the southeast. Asia belong to the peoples who for many centuries were on the way from tribal organization to mature feudalism, which was reflected in the slow pace of their cultural and historical development. evolution, while younger Europeans. peoples in a shorter period have gone through a stormy and radical path of history. development – from tribal society to imperialism, and in the countries of the East. Europe – before socialism. No matter how late the development of Nar. music traditions in comparison with the change of society.-economic. formations, yet in Europe it was more intense than in the East, and came to a number of qualities. innovations. Each historical the stage of existence of N. m. enriches the folklore tradition in a specific way. regularities. Therefore, it is unlawful to compare, for example, the harmony of German. nar. Arabic songs and melody. makams by modal subtlety: in both cultures there are certain clichés and brilliant revelations; the task of science is to reveal their specificity.

N. m. decomp. ethnic regions has gone through a path of development that is different in intensity, but in general terms, three main ones can be distinguished. stage in the evolution of music. folklore:

1) the most ancient era, the origins of which go back centuries, and the upper historical. the border is associated with the time of the official adoption of a particular state. religion that replaced the pagan religions of tribal communities;

2) the Middle Ages, the era of feudalism – the time of the folding of nationalities and the heyday of the so-called. classical folklore (for European peoples – traditional peasant music, usually associated with N. m. in general, as well as oral professionalism);

3) modern. (new and latest) era; for many peoples is connected with the transition to capitalism, with the growth of mountains. culture that originated in the Middle Ages. The processes taking place in N. m. are intensified, old traditions are being broken, and new forms of bunks are emerging. music creativity. This periodization is not universal. For example, Arab. music is not known so definite. the difference between the peasant and the mountains. traditions, as European; typically European. historical the evolution of N. m. – from the village to the city, in the Creole music of the countries of Lat. America is “upside down”, just like Europe. international folklore connections – from people to people – here corresponds to the specific. connection: europ. capitals – lat.-amer. city ​​- lat.-amer. village. In European N. m. three historical. Periods correspond and genre-stylistic. its periodization (for example, the most ancient types of epic and ritual folklore – in the 1st period, the development of these and the flowering of lyrical genres – in the 2nd, increased connection with written culture, with popular dances – in the 3rd).

The question of the genres of N. м. Genre classification according to one vnemuz. the functions of N. м. (the desire to group all its types depending on the social and everyday functions performed by it in the Nar. life) or only in music. characteristics are inadequate. An integrated approach is needed: e.g. the song is defined through the unity of the text (theme and poetics), melody, compositional structure, social function, time, place and nature of performance, etc. etc. Additional The difficulty is that in folklore a territorial feature plays a huge role: N. м. exists only in specific dialects. Meanwhile, the degree of distribution decomp. genres and products of any genre within even one dialect (not to mention the system of dialects of a given ethnic group) is uneven. In addition, there is a production and entire genres that do not at all claim to be “nationwide” (for example, lyric. improvisations, etc. Mr. personal songs, etc. d.). In addition, there are traditions of performance by different singers of the same text to different melodies, as well as texts of different content and function – to the same melody. The latter is observed both within the same genre (which is the most common) and between genres (for example, among the Finno-Ugric peoples). One product. always improvised during performance, others are passed down from century to century with minimal changes (for some peoples, an error in the performance of a ritual melody was punishable by death). Therefore, the genre definition of both cannot be the same. The concept of genre as a generalization of large material opens the way for typological characterization of the whole variety of N. m., but at the same time it slows down the study of the real complexity of folklore with all its transitional and mixed types and varieties, and most importantly, it usually does not coincide with that empirical. classification of material, which is accepted by each given folklore tradition according to its unwritten, but persistent laws, with its own terminology, which varies by dialects. For example, for a folklorist there is a ritual song, and Nar. the performer does not consider it a song, defining it according to its purpose in the rite (“vesnyanka” – “calling spring”). Or the genres distinguished in folklore are united among the people into special groups (for example, among the Kumyks, 2 large polygenre areas of song creativity – heroic-epic and everyday – are designated “yyr” and “saryn” respectively). All this testifies to the conditionality of any group differentiation of N. м. and pseudo-scientific definition of genre universals. Finally, different peoples exist so specific. genres N. m., that it is difficult or impossible for them to find analogies in foreign folklore (for example, Afr. full moon dances and tattoo songs, Yakut. farewell dying singing and singing in a dream, etc. P.). Genre systems N. м. different peoples may not coincide in entire sections of creativity: for example, some Indian tribes lack narration. songs, while others peoples of music The epic has been greatly developed (Rus. epics, Yakut. many etc. P.). Nevertheless, the genre characteristic is indispensable when summarizing the basics. damn N.

Genres have evolved over the centuries, depending primarily on the diversity of the social and everyday functions of N. m., which in turn are associated with the economic and geographical. and socio-psychological. features of the formation of an ethnic group. N. m. has always been not so much entertainment as an urgent need. Its functions are diverse and relate to both the personal and family life of a person, and his collective activities. Accordingly, there were song cycles associated with the main. stages of the life cycle of an individual (birth, childhood, initiation, wedding, funeral) and the labor cycle of the collective (songs for workers, ritual, festive). However, in antiquity the songs of these two cycles were closely intertwined: the events of individual life were part of the life of the collective and, accordingly, were celebrated collectively. The oldest so-called. personal and military (tribal) songs.

Main types of N. m. – song, song improvisation (type of Sami yoika), song without words (for example, Chuvash, Jewish), epic. legend (for example, Russian bylina), dance. melodies, dance choruses (for example, Russian ditty), instr. plays and tunes (signals, dances). The music of the peasantry, which forms the basis of traditions. European folklore. peoples, accompanied the whole working and family life: calendar holidays of the annual farming. circle (carols, stoneflies, Shrovetide, Trinity, Kupala), summer field work (mowing, reaping songs), birth, wedding and death (funeral lamentations). The greatest development was received by N. m. in lyric. genres, where simple, short tunes are replaced by labor, ritual, dance and epic. songs or instr. tunes came deployed and sometimes complex in form muses. improvisations – vocal (for example, Russian lingering song, Romanian and Mold. doina) and instrumental (for example, program “songs for listening” of Transcarpathian violinists, Bulgarian cavalists, Kazakh dombrists, Kyrgyz komuzists, Turk. dutarists, instrumental ensembles and orchestras of Uzbeks and Tajiks, Indonesians, Japanese, etc.).

To the ancient people Song genres include song inserts in fairy tales and other prose stories (the so-called cantefable), as well as song episodes of great epic tales (for example, Yakut olonkho).

Labor songs either describe labor and express attitudes towards it, or accompany it. The last of the most ancient origin, they have evolved greatly in connection with the historical. changing forms of work. For example, Lithuanian sutartines sang amoebeino (that is, alternately, in the form of a question – answer) on the hunt, while collecting honey, harvesting rye, pulling flax, but not during plowing or threshing. Amoebaic singing gave the worker a much-needed respite. This also applies to those who accompanied a heavy husband. work on artel (burlak) songs and choruses (in folklore that has undergone a long evolution, for example, in Russian, musical forms have been preserved that reflect only a late stage in the development of this genre). The music of the songs that accompanied collective festivities and rituals (for example, Russian calendar ones) did not yet possess an exclusively aesthetic character. functions. It was one of the most powerful means of asserting a person in the world and was an ingredient in ritual syncretism, which was comprehensive in nature and concerned both exclamations, gestures, dances and other movements (walking, running, jumping, tapping) inseparable from singing, and special manners of singing (for example, allegedly only loud singing contributed to a good harvest). The purposefulness of these songs, which were muses. symbols of the rites corresponding to them (outside of which they were never performed), determined the stability of their muses. structures (the so-called “formula” tunes – short, often narrow-volume and anhemitonic melodies, each of which was combined with a large number of different poetic texts of a similar function and calendar timing), the use in each local tradition is limited. a set of stereotypical rhythms. and modal revolutions – “formulas”, especially in refrains, usually performed by the choir.

The music of wedding ceremonies cannot be generalized, which sometimes differ fundamentally among different peoples (for example, the numerous poetic “weeps” of the bride in the North Russian tradition and the limited participation of the bride and groom in some Central Asian weddings). Even among one people, there is usually a large dialectal variety of wedding genres (actually ritual, laudatory, lamentatory, lyrical). Wedding melodies, like calendar melodies, are “formular” (for example, in the Belarusian wedding ceremony, up to 130 different texts can be performed per melody). The most archaic traditions have a minimum of formulaic tunes that sound throughout the entire “wedding game”, sometimes for many days. In Russian traditions, wedding melodies differ from calendar melodies primarily in their complex and non-standard rhythm (often 5-beat, internally steadily asymmetric). In some traditions (for example, Estonian), wedding tunes occupy a central place in the folklore of rituals and festivities, influencing the music. style of other traditional genres.

The music of children’s folklore is based on intonations that often have a universal. character: these are the modal formulas

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with a simple rhythm, coming from a 4-beat verse and elementary dance figures. Melodies of lullabies, with predominant choreic. motifs, are usually based on a trichord with low frequency, sometimes complicated by a subquart or nearby singing sounds. Lullabies not only helped rock the child, but were also called upon to magically protect him from evil forces and conjure him from death.

Lamentations (musical laments) are of three types – 2 ritual (funeral and wedding) and non-ritual (so-called household, soldier’s, in case of illness, separation, etc.). Descending quarter-terts intonations with a mobile third and a second predominate, often with a sub-quart on exhalation (Russian laments), sometimes with a more-second comparison of two fourth cells (Hungarian laments). The composition of laments is characterized by one-line and apocope (word break): muz. the form is, as it were, shorter than the verse, the unsung endings of words seem to be swallowed with tears. The performance of lamentations is saturated with unnotated glissando, rubato, exclamations, patter, etc. This is a free improvisation based on traditions. musical-stylistic stereotypes.

Muses. epic, that is, a sung poetic epic. poetry is a large and internally heterogeneous area of ​​narration. folklore (for example, in Russian folklore, the following types of it are distinguished: epics, spiritual poems, buffoons, older historical songs and ballads). In the music regarding epic polygenres. Similar epic. plots in different eras of development of N. m. and in the definition. local traditions were implemented in musical-genre terms differently: in the form of epics, dance or game songs, soldier or lyrical and even ritual, for example. carols. (For more on epic intonation proper, see Bylina.) The most important musical-genre indicator of the epic style is the stereotypical cadence, which corresponds to the clause of the verse and is always rhythmometrically emphasized, often slowing down melodic. traffic. However, epics, like many others. other epic. types of folklore, with musical intonation. the parties did not become special muses. genre: they took place specific. “reworking” of song intonations in line with the epic. type of intonation, to-ry and creates a conditional form of epich. melos. The ratio of tune and text in different traditions is different, but tunes that are not attached to any one text and even common to a whole geographical area predominate.

Dance songs (songs and dances) and play songs occupied a large place and played a diverse role in all periods of the development of the N. m. of all peoples. Initially, they were part of labor, ritual and festive song cycles. Their muses. structures are closely related to the type of choreographic. movement (individual, group or collective), however, polyrhythm of melody and choreography is also possible. Dances are accompanied by both singing and playing the music. tools. Many peoples (eg, African) accompaniment is clapping (as well as only blow. instruments). In some tradition of strings. the instruments accompanied only the singing (but not the dance), and the instruments themselves could be improvised right there from the material at hand. A number of peoples (for example, the Papuans) had special. dance houses. The recording of the dance tune does not give an idea of ​​the authentic performance of the dance, which is distinguished by great emotional power.

Lyric. songs are not limited by subject, are not connected by place and time of performance, are known in the most diverse. music forms. This is the most dynamic. genre in the traditional system. folklore. Being influenced, absorbing new elements, lyric. the song allows the coexistence and interpenetration of the new and the old, which enriches its muses. language. Originating partly in the bowels of ritual folklore, partly starting from extra-ritual lyric. production, it has historically evolved strongly. However, where there is a relatively archaic. style (with a short stanza, narrow ambitus, declamation basis), it is perceived as quite modern and satisfies the muses. performer requests. It’s the lyric. the song, open to neoplasms from the outside and potentially capable of development from the inside, brought N. m. a wealth of muses. forms and express. means (for example, a polyphonic form of a widely chanted Russian lingering lyrical song, in which long sounds are replaced by chants or whole musical phrases, that is, they are extended melodically, which transfers the center of gravity of the song from verse to music). Lyric. songs were created in almost all democratic countries. social groups – peasant farmers and peasants who have broken away from the farmers. labor, artisans, proletariat and students; with the development of mountains. cultures formed new muses. so-called forms mountains songs associated with prof. music and poetic. culture (written poetic text, new musical instruments and new dance rhythms, mastering popular composer melodics, etc.).

In the department In cultures, genres are differentiated not only in content, function, and poetics, but also in terms of age and gender: for example, songs for children, youthful and girlish, female and male (the same applies to musical instruments); sometimes a ban is imposed on the joint singing of men and women, which is reflected in the muses. structure of the respective songs.

Summarizing the music the style of all song genres, one can also single out the main. musical-intonation traditional warehouses. (peasant) N. m .: narrative, chanting, dance and mixed. However, this generalization is not universal. For example, in almost all genres, Yakuts. folklore, from lyric. improvisations to lullabies, one and the same song style of dieretii occurs. On the other hand, certain styles of singing do not fit into any known systematization: for example, the unnotated timbre of a gurgling-vibrating sound is an Arab. perform. manners or Yakut kylysakhs (special falsetto overtones, acute accents). The wordless songs of the Ainu – sinottsya (delightful tunes) – do not lend themselves to written fixation: intricate voice modulations produced in the depths of the throat, with some participation of the lips, and each performs them in his own way. Thus, the musical style of one or another N. m. depends not only on its genre composition, but also, for example, on the relationship of singing with ritualized rhythmic music. speech (usual for early traditional patriarchal societies with their regulated way of life) and with colloquial speech, which differs little from singing among a number of peoples (meaning tone languages ​​such as Vietnamese, as well as certain European dialects – for example, the melodious dialect of Greek . population of the island of Chios). Tradition is also important. the sound ideal of every ethnic group. culture, a kind of intonation-timbre model that generalizes specific. wok elements. and instr. styles. Many associated with this. features of a particular music. intonation: for example, Avar female. singing (throat, in a high register) resembles the sound of a zurna, in Mongolia there is a vocal imitation of a flute, etc. This sound ideal is not equally clear in all genres, which is associated with the mobility of the border between musical and non-musical in N. m .: there are genres, in which nemuz is noticeably present. element (for example, where attention is focused on the text and where greater freedom of intonation is allowed).

The use of certain music.-express. of means is determined not so much directly by the genre, but by the type of intonation as one of at least 6 intermediate links in a single chain: the form of music-making (individual or collective) – genre – ethnic sound ideal (in particular, the ratio of timbres) – type of intonation – style of intonation – muz.- will express. means (melodic-compositional and ladorhythmic).

In decomp. In the genres of N. m., various types of melos have developed (from recitative, for example, Estonian runes, South Slavic epic, to richly ornamental, for example, lyric songs of the Middle Eastern musical cultures), polyphony (heterophony, bourdon, polyrhythmic combination of tunes in the ensembles of African peoples, German choral chord, Georgian quarter-second and Middle Russian subvocal polyphony, Lithuanian canonical sutartines), fret systems (from primitive low-stepped and narrow-volume modes to the developed diatonic of the “free melodic tuning”) , rhythms (in particular, rhythmic formulas that generalized the rhythms of typical labor and dance movements), forms (stanzas, couplets, works in general; paired, symmetrical, asymmetric, free, etc.). At the same time, N. m. exists in monophonic (solo), antiphonal, ensemble, choral, and instrumental forms.

Describing some typical manifestations of DOS. will express. means of N. m. (in the field of melos, mode, rhythm, form, etc.), it is unreasonable to be limited to their simple enumeration (such formal structural schematism is alien to the real performing nature of oral folklore). It is necessary to reveal the “kinetic schemes” of the intonation-rhythmic structure and the “generating models” of N. m., which, first of all, give specificity to various ethnic traditions; to understand the nature of “dynamic stereotypes” of N. m. of one or another ethnic region. The observation of N. G. Chernyshevsky over the poetic. folklore: “There are in all nar. songs, mechanical techniques, common springs are visible, without which they never develop their themes.

Regional diversity dynamic. stereotypes is associated with the specifics of the historically established forms of performance of H. m., often depending on non-music. factors (labor process, rite, ritual, traditional hospitality, collective holiday, etc.). Muses. specificity also depends on the nemuz. elements of this or that folklore syncretism (for example, in song dances – from verse, dance) and from the type of instr. accompaniment and, above all, on the type and style of intonation. The process of live intonation in N. m. is the most important formative factor, which determines the originality of the muses. intonation and its irreducibility to musical notation. Dynamics of music.-express. funds, their so-called. variation is also associated not only with the oral element of performance, but also with its specific conditions. For example, the same Russian lyric song in solo and choir. polygonal interpretations may differ in harmony: in the choir it is enriched, expanded and, as it were, stabilized (less “neutral” steps), a load. or lat.-amer. choral performance gives the melody something unexpected for Europe. hearing sounding (non-terzian vertical with a peculiar combination of melodies and motives). The peculiarity of intonation of N. m. of different ethnic groups cannot be comprehended from the position of Europeans. music: every music. style should be judged by the laws he himself created.

The role of timbre and the manner of sound production (intonation) in N. m is specific and least perceptible. Timbre personifies the sound ideal of each ethnic group. culture, national music features. intonation, and in this sense serves not only as a style, but also as a formative factor (for example, even Bach’s fugues performed on Uzbek folk instruments will sound like Uzbek N. m.); within this ethnic of culture, timbre serves as a genre-differentiating feature (ritual, epic and lyrical songs are often performed in different timbre manners) and partly as a sign of the dialect division of a given culture; it is a means of dividing the line between music and non-music: for example, emphatically unnatural. timbre coloration separates music from everyday speech, and in the early stages of the existence of N. m. sometimes served “intentional concealment of the timbre of the human voice” (B. V. Asafiev), that is, a kind of disguise, in some ways adequate to ritual masks. This delayed the development of “natural” singing. In ancient types and genres of folklore, timbre intonation combined the features of “music” and “non-music”, which corresponded to the original syncretic. indivisibility of art and non-art in folklore. Hence the special attitude to the purity of the muses. intonations: pure music. tone and nemuz. noise (specifically “hoarseness”) were inextricably combined in one timbre (for example, a hoarse, low timbre of a voice in Tibet; a sound imitating a wagon in Mongolia, etc.). But also released from the “syncretic. timbre” pure music. the tone was used in N. m. more freely than in Europe. composer’s work, “limited” by temperament and musical notation. Thus, the ratio of the musical and non-musical in N. m. is dialectically complex: on the one hand, the primary muses. creative skills depend on nemuz. factors, and on the other hand, music-making is initially opposed to everything non-musical, is essentially its negation. The formation and evolution of the actual muses. forms were a major historical. the conquest of folklore, creative. overcoming the “original” undivided material as a result of repeated “intonational selection”. However, “musical intonation never loses its connection with either the word, or the dance, or the facial expressions (pantomime) of the human body, but “rethinks” the patterns of their forms and the elements that make up the form into their musical means of expression” (B. V. Asafiev).

In the N. m. of each people, and often groups of peoples, there are some kind of “wandering” muses. motives, melodic and rhythmic. stereotypes, some “common places” and even muz.-phraseological. formulas. This phenomenon is obviously vocabulary and stylistic. order. In traditional music folklore pl. peoples (primarily Slavic and Finno-Ugric), along with this, the formulary of another kind is widespread: residents of the same locality can sing texts to the same tune. content and even different genres (for example, an Ingrian singer performs epic, calendar, wedding and lyrical songs for one melody; the Altaians recorded one melody for the whole village, which is used in all genres with texts of different content). The same in children’s folklore: “Rain, rain, let it go!” and “Rain, rain, stop it!”, an appeal to the sun, birds are intoned in the same way, indicating that the music is not associated with the specific content of the words of the song, but with its target setting and the manner of playing corresponding to this goal. In Russian Almost all traditions are marked by N. m. song genres (calendar, wedding, epic, evening, round dance, ditties, etc.), it is no coincidence that they can be differentiated and identified by melody.

All people music cultures can be divided into cultures based on monodic (monophonic) and polyphonic (with a predominance of polyphonic or harmonic warehouses). Such a division is fundamental, but schematic, because sometimes polyphony is known not to the whole people, but only to part of it (for example, sutartines in northeast Lithuania, “islands” of polyphony among the Bulgarians and Albanians, etc.). For N. m., the concepts of “one-voiced singing” and “solo singing” are inadequate: 2- and even 3-goal are known. solo (so-called throat) singing (among Tuvans, Mongolians, etc.). The types of polyphony are diverse: in addition to developed forms (for example, Russian and Mordovian polyphony), heterophony is found in N. m., as well as elements of the primitive canon, bourdon, ostinato, organum, etc. . music). There are several hypotheses about the origin of polyphony. One of them (the most acceptable) takes him out of amoeba singing and emphasizes the antiquity of the canonical. forms, the other connects it with the ancient practice of group “discordant” singing in circle dances, for example. among the peoples of the North. It is more legitimate to speak of the polygenesis of polyphony in N. m. The ratio of wok. and instr. music in a polygon. different cultures – from deep interdependence to complete independence (with various transitional varieties). Some instruments are used only to accompany singing, others only on their own.

Stereotyping dominates in the area of ​​mode and rhythm. In monodic. and polygon. cultures, their nature is different. The modal organization of N. m. is associated with the rhythmic: outside the rhythmic. the structure of the mode is not revealed. Complex relationship rhythmic. and modal foundations and unsustainability underlie the muses. intonation as a process and can only be revealed in the context of a stylistically specific melodic. becoming. Each music. culture has its own stylistically normative ways. The mode is determined not only by the scale, but also by the subordination of steps, which is different for each mode (for example, the allocation of the main step – the tonic, called “ho” in Vietnam, “Shahed” in Iran, etc.), and also by all means corresponding to each fret melodic. formulas or motives (chants). These latter live in Nar. music consciousness, first of all, being the building material of melos. Mode, revealed through rhythmic-syntactic. context, turns out to be the consistency of muses. structures produced. and thus depends not only on the rhythm, but also on the polyphony (if any) and on the timbre and manner of performance, which in turn reveal the dynamics of the mode. Chorus. Singing has historically been one of the ways in which the mode is formed. Comparing solo and polygoal. Spanish (or solo verse and chorus) of one song, one can be convinced of the role of polyphony for the crystallization of the mode: it was collective music-making that visually revealed the richness of the mode simultaneously with its relative stabilization (hence the modal formulas as dynamic stereotypes). Another, more archaic way of the formation of the mode and, in particular, the modal foundation was the repeated repetition of one sound – a kind of “trampling” of the tonic, something that is based on the material of the North Asian and North Amer. N. m. V. Viora calls “stomping repetition”, thereby emphasizing the role of dance in the formation of syncretic modes. prod. Such a chanting of the abutment is also found in Nar. instr. music (for example, among the Kazakhs).

If in the music of different peoples the scales (especially low-step and anhemitonic ones) can coincide, then the modal chants (turns, motifs, cells) reflect the specifics of the N. m. of one or another ethnic group. Their length and ambitus can be associated with the breath of the singer or instrumentalist (on wind instruments), as well as with the corresponding labor or dances. movements. Performed context, melodic style give similar scales (for example, pentatonic) a different sound: for example, you can’t confuse the whale. and shotl. pentatonic scale. The question of the genesis and classification of fret-scale systems is debatable. The most acceptable hypothesis is the historical equality of different systems, the coexistence in N. m. the most varied ambitus. Within the framework of N. m. of one ethnos, there may be different. modes, differentiating by genres and types of intonation. Known hypotheses about the correspondence decomp. fret systems defined. historical types of economy (for example, pentatonic anhemitonics among farmers and 7-step diatonics among pastoral and pastoral peoples). More obvious is the local distribution of some unique modes of the Indonesian type. slendro and pelo. Multistage music. folklore covers all types of mode thinking, from the archaic “opening mode” of the Yakuts to a developed system of diatonic variability. frets east.-glory. songs. But even in the latter, unstable elements, steps moving along the height, as well as the so-called. neutral intervals. Mobility steps (within all steps of the mode), and sometimes tonalities in general (for example, in funeral laments) makes it difficult to classify generalizations. As acousticians have shown, a stable tonal level is not inherent in the real system of N. m. in general, the size of the intervals varies depending on the direction of construction and dynamics (this is also observed in professional performing practice – the zone theory of N. A. Garbuzov), but in wok. music – from phonetic. structures and stress systems of the song text (up to the dependence of the use of neutral intervals on the nature of sound combinations in the verse). In the early types of music. intonation, pitch changes in steps may not turn into modal ones: with the constancy of the linear structure of the melody, the mobility of intervals is allowed (in the so-called off-tone 4-step scales). The mode is determined by the functional-melodic. interdependence of reference tones.

The significance of rhythm in N. m. is so great that there is a tendency to absolutize it, putting forward rhythmic formulas as the basis of creativity (this is justified only in certain cases). Music interpretation. rhythm must be comprehended in the light of intonation. theory of B. V. Asafiev, who rightly believed that “only the doctrine of the functions of durations, similar to the intonation doctrines of the functions of chords, tones of mode, etc., reveals to us the true role of rhythm in musical formation.” “There is no unintonated rhythm in music and cannot be.” Rhythm intonations stimulate the birth of melos. Rhythm is heterogeneous (even within one national culture). For example, Azeri N. m. is divided according to metrorhythmics (regardless of genre division) into 3 groups: bahrli – with a definition. size (songs and dance melodies), bahrsiz – without definition. size (improvisational mughams without percussive accompaniment) and garysyg-bahrli – polymetric (the mugham melody of the voice sounds against the background of a clear accompaniment in size, the so-called rhythmic mughams).

A huge role is played by short rhythmic formulas, approved both by simple repetition (ritual and dance melodies), and by complex polyrhythm decomp. type (e.g. African ensembles and Lithuanian sutartines). Rhythmich. forms are diverse, they are comprehended only in connection with genre- and stylistically-specific phenomena. For example, in the N. m. of the Balkan peoples, dances are complex, but organized into clear formulas. rhythms, including unequal ones (“aksak”), are contrasted with the free rhythm of generally non-tacted chant ornamental melodies (the so-called unscaled ones). In Russian In the peasant tradition, calendar and wedding songs differ in rhythm (the former are based on simple one-element, the latter on complex rhythmic formulas, for example, metrorhythmic formula 6/8, 4/8, 5/8, 3/8, repeated twice), and also lingering lyrical with an asymmetrical melodic rhythm. chant, overcoming the structure of the text, and epic (epics) with rhythm, closely related to the structure of the poetic. text (the so-called recitative forms). With such an internal heterogeneity of music. rhythms of each ethnic. culture, differently associated with movement (dance), word (verse), breathing and instrumentation, it is difficult to give a clear geography of the main. rhythmic types, although the rhythms of Africa, India, Indonesia, the Far East with China, Japan and Korea, the Middle East, Europe, America with Australia, and Oceania are already delimited. Rhythms that are not mixed in one culture (for example, distinguishable depending on the presence or absence of dancing) can be mixed in another or even act uniformly in almost all types of music-making (especially if this is facilitated by the homogeneity of the corresponding poetic system), which is noticeable, e.g. in the runic tradition.

Each type of culture has its own muses. forms. There are non-strophic, improvisational, and aperiodic forms, predominantly open (for example, laments) and strophic, predominantly closed (limited by cadence, symmetry of contrast juxtaposition, and other types of symmetry, variational structure).

Prod., Attributable to the ancient samples of N. m., often have one semantic. a line with a refrain or chorus (the latter could once have had the function of a magic spell). Their muses. the structure is often monorhythmic and based on repetitions. Further evolution took place due to a kind of generalization of repetitions (for example, doubled complexes of newly repeated ones – the so-called double stanza) or the addition, addition of new muses. phrases (motives, chants, melostrings, etc.) and fouling them with a kind of music. prefixes, suffixes, inflections. The appearance of a new element could close the form tending to repetition: either in the form of a cadence turnover, or by a simple extension of the conclusion. sound (or sound complex). The simplest music forms (usually one-phrase) replaced 2-phrase forms – this is where the “actual songs” (strophic) begin.

Variety of strophic forms. song is associated primarily with its performance. Even A. N. Veselovsky pointed out the possibility of composing a song in the process of alternating singers (amebae, antiphony, “chain chant”, various pickups of the soloist in chorus, etc.). Such, for example, are the Gurian polyphonics. songs “gadadzakhiliani” (in Georgian – “echoing”). In music, lyric prod. another method of form creation prevails – melodic. development (a type of Russian lingering song), the “double” structures present here are obscured, hidden behind a new aperiodicity of the internal. buildings.

In Nar. instr. music took place similarly. processes. For example, the form of works associated with dance and developed outside of dance is sharply different (such are the Kazakh kyui, based on the national epic and performed in a special syncretic unity of the “story with the game”).

Thus, the people are the creator of not only countless options, but also various. forms, genres, general principles of music. thinking.

Being the property of the entire people (more precisely, of the entire corresponding musical dialect or group of dialects), N. m. lives not only by nameless performance, but, above all, by the creativity and performance of talented nuggets. Such among different peoples are kobzar, guslyar, buffoon, leutar, ashug, akyn, kuyshi, bakhshi, deer, gusan, taghasats, mestvir, hafiz, olonkhosut (see Olonkho), aed, juggler, minstrel, shpilman, etc.

Special scientific disciplines fixation N. m. – music. ethnography (see Musical ethnography) and its study – music. folklore.

N. m was the basis of almost all national prof. schools, ranging from the simplest processing of bunks. melodies to individual creativity and co-creation, translating folklore music. thinking, i.e., laws specific to one or another people. music traditions. In modern conditions N. m. again turns out to be a fertilizing force both for prof. and for decomp. forms of self-doers. lawsuit.

References: Kushnarev Kh.S., Questions of history and theory of Armenian monodic music, L., 1958; Bartok B., Why and how to collect folk music, (translated from Hung.), M., 1959; his, Folk music of Hungary and neighboring peoples, (translated from Hung.), M., 1966; Melts M. Ya., Russian folklore. 1917-1965. Bibliographic index, vol. 1-3, L., 1961-67; Musical folklore of the peoples of the North and Siberia, M., 1966; Belyaev V. M., Verse and rhythm of folk songs, “SM”, 1966, No 7; Gusev V. E., Aesthetics of folklore, L., 1967; Zemtsovsky I.I., Russian drawling song, L., 1967; his, Russian Soviet Musical Folklore (1917-1967), in Sat: Questions of Theory and Aesthetics of Music, vol. 6/7, L., 1967, p. 215-63; his own, On the Systematic Study of Folklore Genres in the Light of Marxist-Leninist Methodology, in Sat: Problems of Musical Science, vol. 1, M., 1972, p. 169-97; his own, Semasiology of musical folklore, in Sat: Problems of musical thinking, M., 1974, p. 177-206; his own, Melodika of calendar songs, L., 1975; Vinogradov V. S., Music of the Soviet East, M., 1968; Music of the Peoples of Asia and Africa, vol. 1-2, M., 1969-73; Wheels PM, Mysicologists practice, comp. S. Gritsa, Kipv, 1970; Kvitka K.V., Izbr. works, vol. 1-2, M., 1971-73; Goshovsky V. L., At the origins of the folk music of the Slavs, M., 1971; V. I. Lenin in the songs of the peoples of the USSR. Articles and materials, (compiled by I. Zemtsovsky), M., 1971 (Folklore and folkloristics); Slavic musical folklore. Articles and materials, (compiled by I. Zemtsovsky), M., 1972 (Folklore and folkloristics); Chistov K.V., The specifics of folklore in the light of information theory, “Problems of Philosophy”, 1972, No 6; Problems of musical folklore of the peoples of the USSR. Articles and materials, (compiled by I. Zemtsovsky), M., 1973 (Folklore and folkloristics); Musical cultures of peoples. Traditions and Modernity, M., 1973; Musical folklore, comp.-ed. A. A. Banin, vol. 1, Moscow, 1973; Essays on the musical culture of the peoples of Tropical Africa, comp. L. Golden, M., 1973; Music of the Centuries, UNESCO Courier, 1973, June; Rubtsov PA, Articles on musical folklore, L.-M., 1973; Musical culture of Latin America, comp. P Pichugin, M., 1974; Theoretical problems of folk instrumental music, Sat. abstracts, comp. I. Matsievsky, M., 1974. Anthologies of folk songs – Sauce S. H.

I. I. Zemtsovsky

The professional ethnic group “Toke-Cha” has held about 1000 events since 2001. You can order shows that include Eastern Arabic and Central Asian singing, Chinese, Japanese, Indian music on the website http://toke-cha.ru/programs.html.