Rhythm |

Greek rytmos, from reo – flow

The perceived form of the flow of any processes in time. The variety of manifestations of R. in decomp. types and styles of art (not only temporal, but also spatial), as well as outside the arts. spheres (R. of speech, walking, labor processes, etc.) gave rise to many often contradictory definitions of R. (which deprives this word of terminological clarity). Among them, three loosely demarcated groups can be identified.

In the broadest sense, R. is the temporal structure of any perceived processes, one of the three (along with melody and harmony) basic. elements of music, distributing in relation to time (according to P. I. Tchaikovsky) melodic. and harmonic. combinations. R. form accents, pauses, division into segments (rhythmic units of different levels up to individual sounds), their grouping, ratios in duration, etc.; in a narrower sense – a sequence of durations of sounds, abstracted from their height (rhythmic pattern, in contrast to melodic).

This descriptive approach is opposed by the understanding of rhythm as a special quality that distinguishes rhythmic movements from non-rhythmic ones. This quality is given diametrically opposite definitions. Mn. researchers understand R. as a regular alternation or repetition and proportionality based on them. From this point of view, R. in its purest form is the repetitive oscillations of a pendulum or the beats of a metronome. Aesthetic R.’s value is explained by its ordering action and “economy of attention”, facilitating perception and contributing to the automation of muscular work, for example. when walking. In music, such an understanding of R. leads to its identification with a uniform tempo or with a beat – muses. meter.

But in music (as in poetry), where the role of R. is especially great, it is often opposed to meter and is associated not with correct repetition, but with a difficult to explain “sense of life”, energy, etc. (“Rhythm is the main force , the main energy of the verse. It cannot be explained “- V. V. Mayakovsky). The essence of R., according to E. Kurt, is “the striving forward, the movement inherent in it and persistent strength.” In contrast to the definitions of R., based on commensurability (rationality) and stable repetition (statics), emotional and dynamic are emphasized here. the nature of R., which can manifest itself without a meter and be absent in metrically correct forms.

In favor of dynamic R.’s understanding speaks the very origin of this word from the verb “to flow”, to which Heraclitus expressed his main. position: “everything flows.” Heraclitus can rightly be called the “philosopher of the world R.” and to oppose the “philosopher of world harmony” Pythagoras. Both philosophers express their worldview using the concepts of two fundamentals. parts of antique theory of music, but Pythagoras turns to the doctrine of stable ratios of sound pitches, and Heraclitus – to the theory of the formation of music in time, his philosophy and antich. rhythms can mutually explain each other. Main R.’s difference from timeless structures is uniqueness: “you cannot step into the same stream twice.” At the same time, in the “world R.” Heraclitus alternate “way up” and “way down”, the names of which – “ano” and “kato” – coincide with the terms of antich. rhythms, denoting 2 parts of rhythmic. units (more often called “arsis” and “thesis”), the ratios of which in duration form R. or the “logos” of this unit (in Heraclitus, “world R.” is also equivalent to “world Logos”). Thus, the philosophy of Heraclitus points the way to the synthesis of dynamic. R.’s understanding of the rational, generally prevailing in antiquity.

Emotional (dynamic) and rational (static) points of view do not really exclude, but complement each other. “Rhythmic” usually recognize those movements that cause a kind of resonance, empathy for the movement, expressed in the desire to reproduce it (rhythm experiences are directly related to muscle sensations, and from external sensations to sounds, the perception of which is often accompanied by internal sensations. playback). For this, it is necessary, on the one hand, that the movement is not chaotic, that it has a certain perceived structure, which can be repeated, on the other hand, that the repetition is not mechanical. R. is experienced as a change of emotional tensions and resolutions, which disappear with exact pendulum-like repetitions. In R., thus, static are combined. and dynamic. signs, but, since the criterion of rhythm remains emotional and, therefore, in meaning. In a subjective way, the boundaries separating rhythmic movements from chaotic and mechanical ones cannot be strictly established, which makes it legal and descriptive. the underlying approach. specific studies of both speech (in verse and prose) and music. R.

The alternation of tensions and resolutions (ascending and descending phases) gives rhythmic. structures of periodicals. character, which should be understood not only as a repetition of certain. sequence of phases (compare the concept of a period in acoustics, etc.), but also as its “roundness,” which gives rise to repetition, and completeness, which makes it possible to perceive rhythm without repetition. This second feature is all the more important, the higher the rhythmic level. units. In music (as well as in artistic speech), the period is called. construction expressing a complete thought. The period may be repeated (in couplet form) or be an integral part of a larger form; at the same time it represents the smallest education, a cut can be independent. work.

Rhythmic. the impression can be created by the composition as a whole due to the change of tension (ascending phase, arsis, tie) resolution (descending phase, thesis, denouement) and division by caesuras or pauses into parts (with their own arsis and theses). In contrast to compositional ones, smaller, directly perceived articulations are usually called rhythmic proper. It is hardly possible to set the limits of what is directly perceived, but in music we can refer to R. phrasing and articulatory units within the muses. periods and sentences, determined not only by semantic (syntactic), but also physiological. conditions and comparable in magnitude with such physiological. periodicities, like breathing and pulse, to-rye are prototypes of two types of rhythmic. structures. Compared to the pulse, breathing is less automated, farther from the mechanical. repetition and closer to the emotional origins of R., its periods have a clearly perceived structure and are clearly delineated, but their size, normally corresponding to approx. 4 beats of the pulse, easily deviates from this norm. Breathing is the basis of speech and music. phrasing, determining the value of the main. phrasing unit – column (in music it is often called a “phrase”, and also, for example, A. Reicha, M. Lucy, A. F. Lvov, “rhythm”), creating pauses and natures. melodic form. cadences (literally “falls” – the descending phase of the rhythmic. units), due to the lowering of the voice towards the end of the exhalation. In the alternation of melodic promotions and demotions are the essence of “free, asymmetrical R.” (Lvov) without a constant value rhythmic. units, characteristic of many. folklore forms (starting with primitive and ending with Russian. lingering song), Gregorian chant, znamenny chant, etc. etc. This melodic or intonational R. (for which the linear rather than the modal side of the melody matters) becomes uniform due to the addition of pulsating periodicity, which is especially evident in songs associated with body movements (dance, game, labor). Repeatability prevails in it over the formality and delimitation of periods, the end of a period is an impulse that begins a new period, a blow, in comparison with the Crimea, the rest of the moments, as non-stressed ones, are secondary and can be replaced by a pause. Pulsating periodicity is characteristic of walking, automated labor movements, in speech and music it determines the tempo – the size of the intervals between stresses. Division by pulsation of primary rhythmic intonations. units of the respiratory type into equal shares, generated by an increase in the motor principle, in turn, enhances motor reactions during perception and thereby rhythmic. experience. T. o., already in the early stages of folklore, songs of a lingering type are opposed by “quick” songs, which produce more rhythmic. impression. Hence, already in antiquity, the opposition of R. and melody (“male” and “female” beginnings), and the pure expression of R. dance is recognized (Aristotle, “Poetics”, 1), and in music it is associated with percussion and plucked instruments. Rhythmic in modern times. character is also attributed to preim. marching and dancing music, and the concept of R. more often associated with the pulse than with respiration. However, one-sided emphasis on pulsation periodicity leads to a mechanical repetition and replacement of the alternation of tensions and resolutions with uniform blows (hence the centuries-old misunderstanding of the terms “arsis” and “thesis”, denoting the main rhythmic moments, and attempts to identify one or the other with stress). A number of blows are perceived as R. only due to the differences between them and their grouping, the simplest form of which is pairing, which in turn are grouped in pairs, etc.

The subjective assessment of time is based on the pulsation (which achieves the greatest accuracy in relation to values ​​close to the time intervals of a normal pulse, 0,5-1 sec) and, therefore, the quantitative (time-measuring) rhythm built on the ratios of durations, which received the classic. expression in antiquity. However, the decisive role in it is played by physiological functions that are not characteristic of muscle work. trends, and aesthetic. requirements, proportionality here is not a stereotype, but art. canon. The significance of dance for quantitative rhythm is due not so much to its motor, but to its plastic nature, directed to vision, which is for rhythmic. perception due to psychophysiological. reasons requires discontinuity of movement, change of pictures, lasting a certain time. This is exactly what the antique was like. dance, R. to-rogo (according to the testimony of Aristides Quintilian) consisted in a change of dances. poses (“schemes”) separated by “signs” or “dots” (Greek “semeyon” has both meanings). Beats in quantitative rhythm are not impulses, but the boundaries of segments comparable in size, into which time is divided. The perception of time here approaches the spatial one, and the concept of rhythm approaches symmetry (the idea of ​​rhythm as proportionality and harmony is based on ancient rhythms). The equality of temporary values ​​becomes a special case of their proportionality, along with the Crimea, there are other “kinds of R.” (ratios of 2 parts of the rhythmic unit – arsis and thesis) – 1:2, 2:3, etc. Submission to formulas that predetermine the ratio of durations, which distinguishes dance from other bodily movements, is also transferred to musical-verse genres, directly with dance not related (for example, to the epic). Owing to the differences in length of syllables, a verse text can serve as a “measure” of R. (meter), but only as a sequence of long and short syllables; actually R. (“flow”) of the verse, its division into arses and theses and the accentuation determined by them (not associated with verbal stresses) belong to the music and dance. side of the syncretic lawsuit. The inequality of rhythmic phases (in a foot, verse, stanza, etc.) occurs more often than equality, repetition and squareness give way to very complex constructions, reminiscent of architectural proportions.

Characteristic for the epochs of the syncretic, but already folklore, and prof. art-va quantitative R. exists, in addition to antique, in the music of a number of eastern. countries (Indian, Arab, etc.), in the Middle Ages. mensural music, as well as in the folklore of many others. peoples, in which one can assume the influence of prof. and personal creativity (bards, ashugs, troubadours, etc.). Dance. the music of modern times owes this folklore a number of quantitative formulas, consisting of dec. durations in a certain order, repetition (or variation within certain limits) to-rykh characterizes a particular dance. But for the tact rhythm prevailing in modern times, such dances as the waltz are more characteristic, where there is no division into parts. “poses” and their corresponding time segments of a certain duration.

Clock rhythm, in the 17th century. completely replacing the mensural, belongs to the third (after intonational and quantitative) type R. – accent, characteristic of the stage when poetry and music separated from each other (and from dance) and each developed its own rhythm. Common to poetry and music. R. is that both of them are built not on the measurement of time, but on accent ratios. Music specifically. the clock meter, formed by the alternation of strong (heavy) and weak (light) stresses, differs from all verse meters (both syncretic musical-speech and purely speech meters) by continuity (the absence of division into verses, metric. phrasing); The measure is like a continuous accompaniment. Like metering in accent systems (syllabic, syllabo-tonic and tonic), the bar meter is poorer and more monotonous than the quantitative one and provides much more opportunities for rhythmic. diversity created by the changing thematic. and syntax. structure. In the accent rhythm, it is not measuredness (obedience to the meter) that comes to the fore, but the dynamic and emotional sides of R., his freedom and diversity are valued above correctness. Unlike the meter, actually R. usually called those components of the temporary structure, to-rye are not regulated by the metric. scheme. In music, this is a grouping of measures (see p. Beethoven’s instructions “R. of 3 bars”, “R. of 4 bars”; “rythme ternaire” in Duke’s The Sorcerer’s Apprentice, etc. etc.), phrasing (since the music. meter does not prescribe division into lines, music in this respect is closer to prose than to verse speech), filling the bar decomp. note durations – rhythmic. drawing, to Krom it. and Russian elementary theory textbooks (under the influence of X. Riman and G. Konyus) reduce the concept of R. Therefore R. and meter are sometimes contrasted as a combination of durations and accentuation, although it is clear that the same sequences of durations with dec. arrangement of accents cannot be considered rhythmically identical. Oppose R. meter is possible only as a really perceived structure of the prescribed scheme, therefore, real accentuation, both coinciding with the clock, and contradicting it, refers to R. Correlations of durations in accent rhythm lose their independence. meaning and become one of the means of accentuation – longer sounds stand out compared to short ones. The normal position of larger durations is on strong beats of the measure, violation of this rule creates the impression of syncopation (which is not characteristic of quantitative rhythm and dances derived from it. mazurka-type formulas). At the same time, the musical designations of the quantities that form the rhythmic. drawing, indicate not real durations, but divisions of the measure, to-rye in music. performance are stretched and compressed in the widest range. The possibility of agogics is due to the fact that real time relationships are only one of the means of expressing rhythmic. drawing, which can be perceived even if the actual durations do not match those indicated in the notes. A metronomically even tempo in the beat rhythm is not only not mandatory, but rather avoided; approaching it usually indicates motor tendencies (march, dance), which are most pronounced in the classical. style; for the romantic

Motority is also manifested in square constructions, the “correctness” of which gave Riemann and his followers a reason to see muses in them. meter, which, like a verse meter, determines the division of the period into motifs and phrases. However, the correctness that arises due to the psychophysiological trends, rather than compliance with certain. rules, cannot be called a meter. There are no rules for division into phrases in bar rhythm, and therefore it (regardless of the presence or absence of squareness) does not apply to the metric. Riemann’s terminology is not generally accepted even in him. musicology (for example, F. Weingartner, analyzing Beethoven’s symphonies, calls the rhythmic structure what the Riemann school defines as a metric structure) and is not accepted in Great Britain and France. E. Prout calls R. “the order according to which cadenzas are placed in a piece of music” (“Musical Form”, Moscow, 1900, p. 41). M. Lussy contrasts metrical (clock) accents with rhythmic – phrasal ones, and in an elementary phrasing unit (“rhythm”, in Lussy’s terminology; he called a complete thought, period “phrase”) there are usually two of them. It is important that the rhythmic units, unlike metric ones, are not formed by subordination to one ch. stress, but by conjugation of equal, but different in function, accents (the meter indicates their normal, although not obligatory position; therefore, the most typical phrase is a two-beat). These functions can be identified with the main. moments inherent in any R. – arsis and thesis.

Muses. R., like verse, is formed by the interaction of semantic (thematic, syntactic) structure and meter, which plays an auxiliary role in clock rhythm, as well as in accent verse systems.

The dynamizing, articulating, and not dissecting function of the clock meter, which regulates (unlike verse meters) only accentuation, and not punctuation (caesuras), is reflected in conflicts between rhythmic (real) and metric. accentuation, between semantic caesuras and the continuous alternation of heavy and light metric. moments.

In the history of clock rhythm 17 – early. 20th century three main points can be distinguished. era. Completed by the work of J. S. Bach and G. f. Handel’s Baroque era establishes DOS. the principles of the new rhythm associated with homophonic harmonic. thinking. The beginning of the era is marked by the invention of the general bass, or continuous bass (basso continuo), which implements a sequence of harmonies not connected by caesuras, changes to which normally correspond to metric. accentuation, but may deviate from it. Melodica, in which “kinetic energy” prevails over “rhythmic” (E. Kurt) or “R. those” over “clock R.” (A. Schweitzer), is characterized by freedom of accentuation (in relation to tact) and tempo, especially in recitative. Tempo freedom is expressed in emotional deviations from a strict tempo (K. Monteverdi contrasts tempo del’-affetto del animo with mechanical tempo de la mano), in conclusion. decelerations, about which J. Frescobaldi already writes, in tempo rubato (“concealed tempo”), understood as shifts of the melody relative to the accompaniment. A strict tempo becomes rather an exception, as evidenced by such indications as mesurй by F. Couperin. Violation of the exact correspondence between musical notations and real durations is expressed in the total understanding of the prolonging point: depending on the context

Can mean

, etc., a

Music continuity. fabric is created (along with basso continuo) polyphonic. means – the mismatch of cadences in different voices (for example, the continued movement of accompanying voices at the endings of stanzas in Bach’s choral arrangements), the dissolution of individualized rhythmic. drawing in uniform motion (general forms of motion), in one-headed. line or in complementary rhythm, filling the stops of one voice with the movement of other voices

etc.), by chaining motives, see, for example, the combination of the cadence of opposition with the beginning of the theme in Bach’s 15th invention:

The era of classicism highlights the rhythmic. energy, which is expressed in bright accents, in a greater evenness of tempo and in an increase in the role of the meter, which, however, only emphasizes the dynamic. the essence of the measure, which distinguishes it from quantitative meters. The duality of the impact-impulse is also manifested in the fact that the strong time of the beat is the normal end point of the muses. semantic unities and, at the same time, the entry of a new harmony, texture, etc., which makes it the initial moment of bars, bar groups and constructions. The dismemberment of the melody (b. parts of a dance-song character) is overcome by the accompaniment, which creates “double bonds” and “intruding cadenzas”. Contrary to the structure of phrases and motifs, the measure often determines the change of tempo, dynamics (sudden f and p on the bar line), articulation grouping (in particular, leagues). Characteristic sf, emphasizing the metric. pulsation, which in similar passages by Bach, for example, in the fantasy from the Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue cycle) is completely obscured

A well-defined time meter can dispense with general forms of movement; classical style is characterized by diversity and rich development of rhythmic. figure, always correlated, however, with the metric. supports. The number of sounds between them does not exceed the limits of easily perceived (usually 4), rhythmic changes. divisions (triplets, quintuplets, etc.) reinforce the strong points. Metric activation. supports are also created by syncopations, even if these supports are absent in real sound, as at the beginning of one of the sections of the finale of Beethoven’s 9th symphony, where rhythmic is also absent. inertia, but the perception of music requires ext. counting imaginary metric. accents:

Although bar emphasis is often associated with even tempo, it is important to distinguish between these two tendencies in classical music. rhythms. In W. A. ​​Mozart, the desire for equality is metric. share (bringing its rhythm to the quantitative one) was most clearly manifested in the minuet from Don Juan, where at the same time. the combination of different sizes excludes agogych. highlighting strong times. Beethoven has an underlined metric. accentuation gives more scope to agogics, and metric gradation. the stresses often go beyond the measure, forming regular alternations of strong and weak measures; in connection with this, Beethoven’s role of square rhythms increases, as if “bars of a higher order”, in which syncope is possible. accents on weak measures, but, unlike real measures, the correct alternation can be violated, allowing expansion and contraction.

In the era of romanticism (in the broadest sense), the features that distinguish accentual rhythm from quantitative (including the secondary role of temporal relationships and meter) are revealed with the greatest completeness. Int. the division of beats reaches such small values ​​that not only the duration of the ind. sounds, but their number is not directly perceived (which makes it possible to create in music images of the continuous movement of wind, water, etc.). Changes in the intralobar division do not emphasize, but soften the metric. beats: combinations of duols with triplets (

) are perceived almost as quintuplets. Syncopation often plays the same mitigating role among romantics; syncopations formed by the delay of the melody (written out rubato in the old sense) are very characteristic, as in ch. parts of Chopin’s Fantasy. In the romantic music appears “large” triplets, quintuplets, and other cases of special rhythmic. divisions corresponding to not one, but several. metric shares. Erase metric borders is graphically expressed in bindings that freely pass through the bar line. In conflicts of motive and measure, motive accents usually dominate over metric ones (this is very typical for I. Brahms’ “talking melody”). More often than in the classic style, the beat is reduced to an imaginary pulsation, which is usually less active than in Beethoven (see the beginning of Liszt’s Faust symphony). The weakening of the pulsation expands the possibilities of violations of its uniformity; romantic the performance is characterized by maximum tempo freedom, the bar beat in duration can exceed the sum of two immediately following beats. Such discrepancies between the actual durations and musical notations are marked in Scriabin’s performance of own. prod. where there are no indications of tempo changes in the notes. Since, according to contemporaries, the game of A. N. Scriabin was distinguished by “rhythm. clarity”, here the accentual nature of rhythmic is fully revealed. drawing. Note notation does not indicate duration, but “weight”, which, along with duration, can be expressed by other means. Hence the possibility of paradoxical spellings (especially frequent in Chopin), when in fn. the presentation of one sound is indicated by two different notes; e.g., when the sounds of another voice fall on the 1st and 3rd notes of a triplets of one voice, along with the “correct” spelling

possible spellings

. Dr. kind of paradoxical spellings lies in the fact that with a changing rhythmic. dividing the composer in order to maintain the same level of weightiness, contrary to the rules of the muses. spelling, does not change musical values ​​(R. Strauss, S. V. Rachmaninov):

R. Strauss. “Don Juan”.

The fall of the role of the meter up to the failure of the measure in the instr. recitatives, cadences, etc., is associated with the increasing importance of the musical-semantic structure and with the subordination of R. to other elements of music, characteristic of modern music, especially romantic music. language.

Along with the most striking manifestations of specific. features of accent rhythm in the music of the 19th century. one can detect interest in earlier types of rhythm associated with an appeal to folklore (the use of folk-song intonational rhythm, characteristic of Russian music, quantitative formulas preserved in the folklore of Spanish, Hungarian, West Slavic, a number of Eastern peoples) and foreshadowing the renewal of rhythm in 20th century

M. G. Harlap

If in the 18-19 centuries. in prof. European music. orientation R. occupied a subordinate position, then in the 20th century. in a number means. styles, it has become a defining element, paramount. In the 20th century rhythm as an element of the whole in importance began to echo with such rhythmic. phenomena in European history. music, as the Middle Ages. modes, isorhythm 14-15 centuries. In the music of the era of classicism and romanticism, only one rhythm structure is comparable in its active constructive role to the rhythm formations of the 20th century. – “normal 8-stroke period”, logically justified by Riemann. However, the music 20th century rhythm significantly different from rhythmic. phenomena of the past: it is specific as the actual muses. phenomenon, not being dependent on dance and music. or poetic music. R.; he means. measure is based on the principle of irregularity, asymmetry. A new function of rhythm in the music of the 20th century. revealed in its formative role, in the appearance of rhythmic. thematic, rhythmic polyphony. In terms of structural complexity, he began to approach harmony, melody. The complication of R. and the increase in its weight as an element gave rise to a number of compositional systems, including stylistically individual, partially fixed by the authors in the theoretical. writings.

Musical leader. R. 20th century the principle of irregularity manifested itself in the normative variability of the time signature, mixed sizes, contradictions between the motive and the beat, and the variety of rhythmic. drawings, non-squareness, polyrhythms with rhythmic division. units for any number of small parts, polymetry, polychronism of motives and phrases. The initiator of the introduction of irregular rhythm as a system was I.F. Stravinsky, sharpening the tendencies of this kind that came from M.P. Mussorgsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, as well as from Russian. folk verse and Russian speech itself. Leading in the 20th century Stylistically, the interpretation of rhythm is opposed by the work of S. S. Prokofiev, who consolidated the elements of regularity (the invariability of tact, squareness, multifaceted regularity, etc.) characteristic of the styles of the 18th and 19th centuries. Regularity as ostinato, multifaceted regularity is cultivated by K. Orff, who does not proceed from the classical. prof. traditions, but from the idea of ​​​​recreating the archaic. declamatory dance. scenic action

Stravinsky’s asymmetric rhythm system (theoretically, it was not disclosed by the author) is based on the methods of temporal and accent variation and on the motivic polymetry of two or three layers.

The rhythmic system of O. Messiaen of a brightly irregular type (declared by him in the book: “The Technique of My Musical Language”) is based on the fundamental variability of the measure and the aperiodic formulas of mixed measures.

A. Schoenberg and A. Berg, as well as D. D. Shostakovich, have rhythmic. irregularity was expressed in the principle of “music. prose”, in the methods of non-squareness, clock variability, “peremetrization”, polyrhythm (Novovenskaya school). For A. Webern, the polychronicity of motives and phrases, the mutual neutralization of tact and rhythmic became characteristic. drawing in relation to emphasis, in later productions. – rhythmic. canons.

In a number of the latest styles, the 2nd floor. 20th century among rhythmic forms. organizations a prominent place was occupied by rhythmic. series usually combined with series of other parameters, primarily pitch parameters (for L. Nono, P. Boulez, K. Stockhausen, A. G. Schnittke, E. V. Denisov, A. A. Pyart, and others). Departure from the clock system and free variation of rhythmic divisions. units (by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc.) led to two opposite types of R. notation: notation in seconds and notation without fixed durations. In connection with the texture of super-polyphony and aleatoric. a letter (for example, in D. Ligeti, V. Lutoslavsky) appears static. R., devoid of accent pulsation and certainty of tempo. Rhythmich. features of the latest styles prof. music is fundamentally different from rhythmic. properties of mass song, household and estr. music of the 20th century, where, on the contrary, rhythmic regularity and emphasis, the clock system retains all its significance.

V. N. Kholopova.

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